从违反合作原则的角度浅析《简.爱》中简.爱的人物性格
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作者: 邓丽晖
摘 要: 在言语交际中,为了保证会话的顺利进行,谈话双方必须共同遵守合作原则。然而,人们往往出于某些原因违反合作原则。本文以合作原则中四条准则出发,截取《简・爱》中的部分对话作为语料,通过分析其对话违反合作原则所表达的言外之意,剖析作品女主人公的性格特点。
关键词: 合作原则 小说《简・爱》 人物性格
一、引言
《简・爱》是十九世纪英国著名的女作家夏洛蒂・勃朗特的代表作,自出版至今,历经百年,却依旧好评如潮。作者笔下的女主人公简・爱成了女性是通过个人奋斗,在社会上获得平等地位的典范,而张扬女主人公鲜明个性的就是作者成功的语言描写和心理描写。作品中简・爱在不少会话中违反了合作原则,从而赋予人物丰富的语用意义,刻画出其人物性格。
二、合作原则理论
1967年美国语言学家、哲学家Paul Grice在哈佛大学威廉・詹姆斯系列讲座中提出了会话中的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)。这条原则规定,谈话的参与者必须提供充分、真实、相互关联的信息,且表达必须简洁有序,避免歧义和混乱。此原则具体包括有以下四项准则。
(一)数量准则(Quantity maxim)
A.使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现时目的)所要求的详尽程度
B.不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽
(二)质量准则(Quality maxim)
A.不要说自己认为是不真实的话
B.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话
(三)关联准则(Relation maxim)
说话要相关
(四)方式准则(Manner maxim)
A.避免晦涩的词语
B.避免歧义
C.说话要简要
D.说话要有条理
Grice虽然指出人们在会话过程中要遵守如充分、真实、相关、清楚等原则和准则,但他也意识到日常会话中人们并不总是遵守这些准则。他接着指出在会话交流中,如果说话人一方的话语故意公开地违反这些准则(violation of the maxim),那么一定有其主观意图,也就是话语的含义(马冬,2006:64)。如果一方故意违反原则,且听话人认为对方是合作的,则他会根据当时的语境,推断出说话人违反合作原则的真正意图,从而推导出说话人的会话含义(Communicational Implicature),也就是说话人希望表达的言外之意。这样一种非理想的(相对于绝对地遵循Grice的合作原则而言)交际模式在日常生活中比比皆是,在文学作品《简・爱》中亦甚常见,作品女主人公简・爱在进行会话中往往通过违反合作原则表达言外之意以突出自身的独特性格。
三、合作原则的违反所塑造的简・爱的人物性格
《简・爱》是一部带有自传色彩的长篇小说,作者夏洛蒂・勃朗特围绕着女主人公简・爱为我们叙述了其一生与命运搏斗和充满爱与恨的精彩故事。夏洛蒂・勃朗特从小便生长在一个文学气息浓厚的家庭,她对文字有着异于常人的驾驭能力,尽管她把简・爱描写成一个贫穷、低微、相貌平凡无奇的女家庭教师,但是可通过分析会话中对合作原则的违反而产生的言外之意窥探其内心世界和真实情感,由此领略作者所刻画的主人公的独特个性。
(一)简・爱的叛逆反抗精神
例1.取自第一章中简・爱躲起来看书但让表哥约翰・里德发现后的对话。
I feared nothing but interruption,and that came too soon. The breakfast-room door opened.
“Boh! Madam Mope!” cried the voice of John Reed; then he paused: he found the room apparently empty.
“Where the dickens is she!” he continued. “Lizzy! Georgy! (calling to his sisters) Joan is not here: tell mama she is run out into the rain- bad animal!”
“It is well I drew the curtain,” thought I; and I wished fervently he might not discover my hiding-place: nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of vision or conception; but Eliza just put her head in at the door,and said at once:“She is in the window-seat,to be sure,Jack.”
And I came out immediately,for I trembled at the idea of being dragged forth by the said Jack. “What do you want?” I asked,with awkward diffidence.
简・爱是父母双亡的孤儿,自小被舅妈收养,并经常被舅妈的孩子欺负,所以她常常躲起来看书,自娱自乐。在这里简・爱的问话“什么事呀?”显然是违反了合作原则中的质量准则。很明显,简・爱知道表哥约翰・里德是来找她打她或骂她,因为她知道约翰・里德并不喜欢她。对于约翰・里德的叫唤,她并没有回答身在何处,被发现后也没有说在做什么,而是反问他找她是不是有什么事。
例2.取自第四章中简・爱离开盖茨黑德的舅妈家前往罗沃德学校寄宿的前一天晚上跟舅妈的对话。
Shaking from head to foot,thrilled with ungovernable excitement,I continued--“I am glad you are no relation of mine: I will never call you aunt again so long as I live. I will never come to see you when I am grown up; and if any one asks me how I liked you,and how you treated me,I will say the very thought of you makes me sick,and that you treated me with miserable cruelty.”
“How dare you affirm that,Jane Eyre?”
“How dare I,Mrs. Reed? How dare I? Because it is the truth. You think I have no feelings,and that I can do without one bit of love or kindness; but I cannot live so: and you have no pity. I shall remember how you thrust me back- roughly and violently thrust me back- into the red-room,and locked me up there,to my dying day; though I was in agony; though I cried out,while suffocating with distress,”Have mercy! Have mercy,Aunt Reed!“And that punishment you made me suffer because your wicked boy struck me―― knocked me down for nothing. I will tell anybody who asks me questions,this exact tale. People think you a good woman,but you are bad,hard-hearted. You are deceitful!”
根据Grice的理论可以看出,以上这段对话,简・爱违反了合作原则中的质量准则。当简・爱听到舅妈的问题时,她并没有给出一个肯定或否定的回答,而是以初生牛犊不怕虎的姿态反问身为长辈的舅妈:“How dare I,Mrs. Reed?How dare I?”这里显示她并不愿意回答或认为没必要回答她的问题,而且她确信舅妈会明白她以反问的方式作为回答所表达的言外之意,那就是她对舅妈的不满和憎恨之情。这段对话除了违反质量原则外还违反了数量准则,简・爱反问舅妈后并没有停止说话等待舅妈的回答,而是力数对舅妈的看法和激烈地陈述多年来舅妈对她的责骂和虐待,这显然是超出了舅妈问题所期待的回答,而且简・爱的回答也是在舅妈意料之外的。
通过这两个例子我们可以看出年纪小小的简・爱虽然清楚知道自己寄人篱下,在家中没有地位,没有话语权,但并没有以沉默或其他方式表示顺从,更不甘心挨骂挨揍,而是奋力抗争,表达对现实生活的叛逆与反抗。
(二)简・爱乐于助人的美好品质
下面的例子取自第十二章简・爱外出取信途中遇见一个陌生人(其雇主罗切斯特先生,因为双方之前并未见过面,所以不知道对方身份)因从马上摔下来受伤而走上前提供帮助。
If even this stranger had smiled and been good-humored to me when I addressed him; if he had put off my offer of assistance gaily and with thanks,I should have gone on my way and not felt any vocation to renew inquiries: but the frown,the roughness of the traveler,set me at my ease: I retained my station when he waved to me to go,and announced――
“I cannot think of leaving you,sir,at so late an hour,in this solitary lane,till I see you are fit to mount your horse.”
He looked at me when I said this; he had hardly turned his eyes in my direction before.
“I should think you ought to be at home yourself,” said he,“if you have a home in this neighborhood: where do you come from?”
“From just below; and I am not at all afraid of being out late when it is moonlight: I will run over to Hay for you with pleasure,if you wish it: indeed,I am going there to post a letter.”
在以上对话中,简・爱的第一个回答违反了关联准则。当罗切斯特先生挥手让她走时,她虽然知道其意思是不需要帮忙,但她并没有因为对方是跟自己毫无关系的陌生人而置身事外,而是担心对方安危坚持留在原地以望能提供帮助,所以简・爱的回答跟释话者所表达的意思是没有关联的。在这段对话中,简・爱的第二个回答违反了数量准则,当罗切斯特先生说她该回家并问她从哪儿来时,她遵守了合作原则,回答了他的问题。但并没有作罢,而是违反了数量原则,继续说道:“I will run over to Hay for you with pleasure,if you wish it: indeed,I am going there to post a letter.”在这里罗切斯特先生并没有打算让简・爱帮忙,因为他的家就是在附近,他确信自己尽管受伤但是还是能够自行回家。但是简・爱并不知道这一切,她在之前并未跟雇主碰过面,也不知道面前的陌生人就是住在附近不远处的庄园的主人,她并没有因为对方是素未谋面的陌生人而离他而去,尽管对方示意让她这么做,而且向她表明:“I should think you ought to be at home yourself.”但释话者简・爱的回答是:“I cannot think of leaving you,sir,at so late an hour,in this solitary lane,till I see you are fit to mount your horse.”“From just below; and I am not at all afraid of being out late when it is moonlight: I will run over to Hay for you with pleasure,if you wish it: indeed,I am going there to post a letter.”
根据对以上对话的分析,我们可以看出简・爱是一个乐于助人的女孩。
(三)简・爱追求平等的一面
下面的例子取自第二十三章中简・爱决定离开桑费尔德庄园前跟罗切斯特先生的对话。
“No,you must stay!I swear it――and the oath shall be kept.”
“I tell you I must go!”I retorted,roused to something like passion. “Do you think I can stay to become nothing to you? Do you think I am an automaton?――A machine without feelings? And can bear to have my morsel of bread snatched from my lips,and my drop of living water dashed from my cup? Do you think,because I am poor,obscure,plain,and little,I am soulless and heartless?You think wrong!――I have as much soul as you,――and full as much heart! And if God had gifted me with some beauty and much wealth,I should have made it as hard for you to leave me,as it is now for me to leave you. I am not talking to you now through the medium of custom,conventionalities,nor even of mortal flesh;――it is my spirit that addresses your spirit; just as if both had passed through the grave,and we stood at God’s feet,equal,――as we are!”
这段对话是发生在两人的婚礼后,简・爱在婚礼中得知未婚夫罗切斯特先生已有一个发疯的妻子后决定离开桑费尔德庄园。根据Grice的合作原则,我们可以知道简・爱违反了数量准则和关联准则。她明白罗切斯特先生让其留下来的意思,也就是做他的情妇,虽然这于礼不合的做法与她所信仰的宗教准则相悖,但简・爱超出会话标准激动地反问道:“Do you think I am an automaton?――A machine without feelings?”这里她用一个比喻形象地表达了自己的意思:我虽然一贫如洗、默默无闻、长相平庸、个子瘦小,但我不是机器,是一个跟你一样有灵魂、有心肠的人,我们是平等的。这些回答很明显与罗切斯特先生的话是不相关的,而且她希望表达的意思也比所说的话要简洁。
在这里,作者巧用违反合作原则的表达,使简・爱追求平等的个性跃然于纸上。
(四)简・爱对亲情的重视和无私奉献精神
下面的例子取自第三十三章中简・爱从表哥圣・约翰那里得知自己继承了早年在印度经商的叔叔的两万英镑遗产后的对话。
“Did I not say you neglected essential points to pursue trifles?” he asked. “You were serious when I told you you had got a fortune; and now,for a matter of no moment,you are excited.”
“What can you mean? It may be of no moment to you; you have sisters and don’t care for a cousin; but I had nobody; and now three relations,――or two,if you don’t choose to be counted,――are born into my world full-grown. I say again,I am glad!”
...
“Perhaps,if you explained yourself a little more fully,I should comprehend better.”
“Explain! What is there to explain? You cannot fail to see that twenty thousand pounds,the sum in question,divided equally between the nephew and three nieces of our uncle,will give five thousand to each? What I want is,that you should write to your sisters and tell them of the fortune that has accrued to them.”
在听到表哥圣・约翰说她“for a matter of no moment,you are excited”时,简・爱违反了关联准则,她明白表哥说的是身边突然多了两个表姐和一个表哥比起多了两万英镑并不那么令人兴奋,值得兴奋的是那笔巨额的遗产,但她的反应显然不是表哥在意料之中。因为她所说的并不是关于遗产的事,也不是为得到遗产而兴奋,相反是因为知道在这世界上还活着跟她有血缘的人,而且还是在自己身边。可以看出,与金钱相比,简・爱更看重亲情,对于她来说,亲情占据的位置更大。因为在这之前她是一个在一所条件并不好的寄宿学校读书,之后当上了在当时来说地位卑微的家庭教师,可以说自有意识以来,贫穷就伴随着她。但尽管如此,在得知自己继承遗产,按表哥的话来说,她只是“You were serious when I told you you had got a fortune”,但对于亲人,她的反应却是“and now,for a matter of no moment,you are excited”。在接下来两人的对话中,简・爱对表哥的回答违反了关联准则和数量准则。在听到表哥的问题后,简・爱没有直接回答,因为在这之前她已经跟圣・约翰表明了自己的立场,那就是她会跟三个表哥表姐平分从叔叔那里继承的两万遗产,但这提意并没有得到圣・约翰的赞同,而是“also advised me to be composed”,所以当她听到圣・约翰让她解释得再详细一点时,她知道对方并不是真的让她解释,而是质疑她的做法。因此她并没有做出解释,而是以反问的方式向圣・约翰作出回答,这言外之意是表明她坚决要把两万英镑平分为四份。她接着继续重复她之前所作的决定,这决定圣・约翰是已经知道的。简・爱违反数量原则向对方重复已经知道的内容只是为了向对方表明她态度的坚决。
在这个例子,作者通过描写女主人公对合作原则的违反向读者展示其重视亲情和无私奉献的一面。
四、结语
Grice虽然提出了合作原则,但他亦指出,在实际交际中人们并不都严格遵守这些原则。在现实生活中,交际双方或多或少通过违反合作原则表达言外之意,也就是Grice提出的会话含义。文学作品源于现实生活,反映现实生活,因此作品的人物对话也存在违反合作原则的会话现象,而这些违反原则的对话也正是塑造人物形象的手段之一。在小说《简・爱》中,作者也巧妙地利用违反合作原则的会话刻画出女主人公简・爱独有的人物性格。
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